References and Bibliography
Appendices Organisations Relating to Community and Internet Development
Introduction
The notion of access to internet and computer communications technology in this piece will be
explored in terms of the impact of the developing medium, both on communities of people and the
implications for the community services. The research will draw on resources form the conventional
media, books, journals, government policy documents, and case studies of human service sector use
of the new media in attending to access issues.
Over the past two decades the rapid emergence and development of computer communications has
provided current users of the Internet with a global information and communications tool
potentially combining the facilities of a fax machine, phone, TV, newspaper, meeting room, library
and postal system. The Internet may differ from other forms of informational and communications
media, such as the television, radio or telephone, in that it may act as a 'broadcasting' medium,
in that it allows all users the facility for 'one' to 'many' communication. This level of
functionality, in combination with the searching and archiving facilities of a computer may go some
way to explain the systems explosive growth. Rhinegold, (1995), suggests that the Internet
currently connects some 30 million people world-wide, and the number of users is growing
exponentially. Figures such as these suggest the Internet is proving to be very popular amongst
those who can afford access; and the many sectors of society, including education, government,
business, individuals and groups who are taking an interest in the Internet as a means for
communication; for information gathering and distribution; for commercial gain, campaigning or
simply for the fun of using a tool that will allow fast and efficient, instantaneous global
communication.
The functionality that make the Internet a tool potentially revolutionising the communication of
those who gain access, although the new media may offer the opportunity for control, further
oppression, exclusion; widening the wealth, and information divide, beyond it's current expanse. In
this sense the Internet presents a relevance for all people, effecting all regardless of if they
like, dislike or feel indifferent to the new technologies that make the Internet possible. The
result of the developing use and investment in computer communication networks may well effect the
lives of those who do not access them as well as those who do. The community services may play some
role in the development of the medium in terms of it's level of accessibility to the Services client
groups. The work will consider the issues of access to information, considering the role of the
media in modern soiety. The role of the conventional media in the perception of the Internet will be
discussed with reference to potential damaging effects of misrepresentation of the scope and use of
the Internet. The technical and cultural development of the Internet, it's developing functionality,
and rapid emergence as a medium influencing possible social change will offer a context for a
further analyses of the role of computer communications in future social life. Sample surveys will
be used to highlight access inequalities in the demographic make-up of current internet users. Cross
referencing of surveys will attempt to show changing trends in the Internet population. A little
futurology will be presented to show the potential ramifications of social communications
technology, and the effects of the enhancement of personal and social productivity created by the
use of technologies.
Current methods of commercial access provision to computer networks will be analyses in relation to
economic, and social issues. The role of economics, and market forces will be explored in terms of
the ramifications for equality of access. The intensifying role and interest of the business
community in the monopolistic development of the media, with particular reference to the highly
competitive nature of the computer industry, will be used to show further potential differentiation
in equality of access. It will be argued that without community service, and particularily
Government intervention the Internet may increase inequalities and social division. Potential
outcomes of the Services role in the new media, in the revitalsation of communities will be drawn
from case studies of current community service initiatives addressing access issues. Throuout the
dissertation the terms community services and services are intended to refer to the human service
sector an a whole including, voluntary groups, statutory agencies and youth, social and community
services.
Therfore it is proposed that the work will consider the proposition that, increasing social use of
new technologies, computer communications and informational storage and retrieval systems over
computer networks, left to strictly to market forces, with out appropriate political and community
service intervention may act to amplify inequality, creating a widening of the social wealth divide
in terms of members of societies, relative level of access to information, communicaticative
ability, influencing propensity for participation in future political and social life.
Chapter One
Internet: Development, Functionality and Culture
For the moment at least the underlying culture of the Internet is one of sharing and co-operation,
the roots of which lie in the it's history and organisational structure. The co-operative culture
has been extended from the pioneers of the system, who shared software (to make the system work)
and also expertise and advice. Many of the original methods used by these pioneers for the sharing
of information have developed to form the basis of the structures of information distribution now
available to users of the system.
The Internet is a collection of millions of computers linked together via cables or satalite links,
enabling almost instant communication and the potential for unlimited access to information held in
any of the computers attatched to the system. The many parts of the infrastructure supporting the
Internet are independantly owned, for example the Internet cables that span the earth's surface are
in fact a collection of 900 major computer network's, which in turn are collections of many
thousands of smaller local and wide area networks. The networks are co opted with a common agreement
allowing the passing of information across them, (Rhinegold, 1995). It is a system of mutual benefit
to the users of each network. This may go some way to explain the anarchy, as it is somtimes
refered, of the Internet as neither the infrastructure, the equiptment, the software, the users, or
the systems controling the Internet are under the control of any one group, or indeed country.
The culture and history and global nature of the internet create a system of information gathering
and distribution combined with communications facilities which is led by users who add to the system
interms of infrastructure and content, individually, or as part of organisations. The heart of the
internet is found in the principals which guide users, principals of shared responsibility, freedom
of speach and expression, free information distribution and cooperation. In effect if a person joins
the Internet they are as much a part of it's, generation and creation, as a 'user' of the system.
The Internet, has developed 'organically' over a period of 20 years and offers it's users a sharing
and co-operative culture. Difficulties experienced by the emerging commercial sector have acted to
re-enforce this, although large scale investment in the technology from the commercial sector
continues. The activities of a functioning community are based in effective communication. This
communication may take many forms, replications of many of which are currently available in the
communications functionality of the Internet. This common agreement provides the basis of a
powerful, world-wide communications tool. Imagine the internet as a combined fax, phone, TV,
newspaper, meeting room, library, postal system joined with the archiving and searching facilities
of a computer and you may now begin to understand the potential for communication and information
gathering and sharing offered to users of the Internet. This level of functionality may go some way
to explain it's exponential growth. The internet has grown to an estimated population of some 20-30
millions, growing at the rate of 10 percent per month, (Rhinegold, 1995). In the UK British Telecom
are planning business stratagy around an expected UK internet population of 2 millions by end
of 1997, which is more than double the current number of users. (Harrison, 1995, Schofield 1996).
The demography of the developing internet community will be considered in more detail in Chapter
Two.
The Internet offers users two basic facilities which are interlinked;
A) Information, in the form of files and archives, may be stored and retrived by internet users
across the world. A user may store a file on an Internet connected computer, and make it publically
accessable, by various means, to all or particular users throughout the world. A file may be a word
processor document, a sound or picture file, or any information that a computer can manipulate or
store. The basic principle of internet communications involves cooperation of users, software and
hardware using the 'client/server' principle, where computers interact with each other requesting
information (client role) or supplying information (server role) over cable or satalite networks.
Complex communication and informational services available on the Internet, such as the WWW, are
structured combinations of more basic functions or services. Using the client/server principle the
two most basic functions allow a user to of the Internet to, firstly, transfer information in the
form of digital files using a function called 'File Transfer Protocol' or 'FTP'. Files may be moved
by users from, to or between computers to which they have access. The second facility, 'Telnet',
allows a user to control a computer on the Internet from a remote computer somewhere else on the
network.
B) Communications. This includes the storing and retrieval of files and archives although the
Internet offers the means to communicate by more or less instantanious means. The following section
of work is a summary of main Internet tools or services drawing reference to the work of the
authors, Ford, (1995), and Henderson, (1994).
'Electronic Mail' (email) - each regular user has access to a 'mail box' with a unique address,
letters, or 'mailings' and other types of files may be sent and recieved instantly accross the
network.
'Mailing Lists', may be described as a discussion forum. They use the email system to distribute
mailings to geographically disparate groups of people - a mailing is sent to one commonly known
address and is instantly redirected to all the members of the mailing list. These discussion forums
are centred on specific topics of interest, some are open and some are of a closed membership. The
developing discussions are archived centrally and the content of past open groups discussion are
openly available. There are in the regeon of 6000 currently in active operation. Groups exsist
worldwide for the sharing of information and for mutual support on issues including, alcoholism,
Aids/Hiv, adoption, children with special needs, depression, low self esteem, and suicide. (see
Harris, 1995i)
'Usenet news', uses a series of communally accessible, high powered computers linked across the
network; each storing information that is sent by individuals as 'mailings'. The information is
commonly available and is accessable to a user in two distinct forms; as recent 'mailings' which
are posted to all members of a group daily, and as automated archives of information that develop
gradually overtime. Usenet news groups differ from 'Mailing Lists', in the nature of the nature
of the information that is shared, 'topics' of Usenet groups often centre around news or current
affairs. One group was instantly set up by Chinese students at the time of the Tianaman Square
uprising, the first news of this occurrence came to the 'West' over the Usenet. Groups come and go
as quickly as their affairs' become less 'current', There are currently c14,000 such groups
world-wide, increasing at the rate of c20 per day.
'Live Talk' allows two users to communicate instantaneously. Practically this is achieved by each of
the screens of the users splitting into two sections, each user then has half of each others screen
on which to type text which is transferred instantly allowing for real time communication. A live
talk session may be set up by any two users of the internet with a service provider offering a
sufficient level of access. This facility is currently under rapid development, the work may offer
users live speech and live video communication, widely on the network, within a matter of years.
'Live Conferencing' is an extension of 'Live Talk' currently allowing up to eight users to 'Talk
Live'.
'Internet Relay Chat' allows more than eight people to conference live. Users join a named group
and send messages that instantly and simultaneously appear scrolling up all the users screens, so
all people see all the messages. It is sligtly different than 'Live Conferencing', in visual
appearance and in methodology, these differences provoke a different form of usage than with,
'Talk'. IRC discussion generally takes a less formal, more sociable and conversational form.
The 'World Wide Web' (WWW) is both an informational and communicational Internet facility, combining
and accommodating many other Internet tools in a user friendly, graphical form. Information is
stored at a unique Internet location and may be requested in a search of the WWW, and displayed
by a computer connected to the global network. The WWW may simply provide a user with information
as a bilboard, although a key facet of the WWW is it's capacity for interactive use, where a user
may submit information to an information site. The WWW may be used in conjunction with the other
Internet services such as electronic mail, allowing information to be gathered and re distributed by
a user. This is made possible with the use of interactive forms which may be completed live on
screen, the content of which may then be automatically mailed to an specified email address. The WWW
also allows users to access services such as: newsgroups, discussion forums and interactive live
talk, creating the possibility for rich informational and communications networks between users of
a WWW site which because of it's accessability may provide the focal point for internet communication
. Web pages act as indexes of further pages, and some offer searching facilities, to the information
provided in the global system. A single such site, Lycos (URL: http://www.lycos.com/) offers key word
searching of 6 millions of the WWW sites.
'Gopher' is a pre cursor to the WWW, it uses a menu driven system for the reteval of files. Gopher,
so named becuause it is seen as burrowing through the internet for information, generally contains
information pre dating that which is specifically wroten for the newer WWW. The WWW has
rapidly replaced the Gopher system, because of it's interactive nature - with hyperlinks, and
because Gopher information may be viewed on WWW information systems.
A conference entitled The Internet and Social Work, organised by the Social Science department
of the University of Nottingham, offered an introduction to the Internet and computer networking
in relation to Social Work. Harrison, (1995), offers an enlightening perspective, tieing the
internet's many functions into sub groupings. He suggests the internet offers the following
facilities to a user:
Personal Communication - via email and mailing lists,
Aquiring Information - using the above, and News Groups, Gopher, The
Telnet function, and Search Engines - for example, Lycos (world wide web),
Archie (for the gopher system, and Wais (Wide Area Information Server, Gopher),
Distributing Information - using the above, and File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
which equates in function to the Fax machine, indeed the internet may be used to
send information to fax machines,
Interactive Transactions - particularily with interactive use of the World
Wide Web (WWW),
Auditory Sound, and Video Conferencing, Netphone - Telephone, are developing
and possible widespread future functionality.
Harrison provides a clarifyed view of the functionality of the internet. The combination of tools
and services provide a powerful platform of informaton and for communications which when combined
with computer archiving create the possibility new forms of interpersonal and intaorganisational
communication, and information distribution/retrival. The medium is exciting because it is
relatively cheap, global, and offers a mixture of the potential for broadcasting, mixed with two
way interactivity which makes for a system which is more than the sum of it's parts. The current
services and infrastructure are almost inevotably a precursor to further networks and functionality.
Once the net has matured into the conciousness of a larger mass of users, and importantly come to
the attention of the business community further networks and functionality will shadow the current,
already rich and revolutionary functionality. The current internet cobbled together from a patchwork
of sources could be the parent of further networks that will be designed, structured and make the
current system seem quaint, somewhat slow and basic.
The use of the internet, particularily in the use of the WWW, equates to the notion of broadcasting,
although the internet offers demand led access to information - where users request files which are
stored on computers throuought the world. A user of the WWW and email may both, view, and present,
information for potential global mass ditribution. The internet is increasingly offering users a
functionality equating to the production of more conventional forms of mass information distribution
such as, publishing and the media. With an ever increasing critical mass of internet community, the
system offers ever increasing potential for the involvement of information dissemination which has
traditionally been reserved for a select few media organisations and their employees. The societal
role of communications media will be discussed further in Chapter Three.
Chapter Two
The Emerging Information Society and Inequality
A posting to the worldwide internet discussion group on homelessness in August 1995,
(homeless@colorado.edu), provides the following description of two neigboring settlements in the
South American city of Rio De Janero. A fuvella nestles in on the hillside looking over the vast
expanse of the city. The shacks and dirt streets provide a stark comparison to the adjoining
settlement to the east, where large mansion houses equipt with all the trappings of modern suburban
life, and paved streets offer an exsistance seemingly a world apart from that of their neigbours.
Ardent and sopisticated security measures protect those on the east side. The ever increasing
tension between the two modes of exsistance/subsistance is parrallelled by the development of the
fence which separates the peoples. The huge towering fence acts as a physical barrier to the free
passage of the citizens of the fuvella on the west side, but also as an indicator of the
physical segragation of the worlds rich and poor. The fence is a striking example of such
segragation and offers a stark comparison, with people living in such different conditions so
close together, although such segragation exsists between the worlds rich and poor, in overt,
striking ways, with the influence of world exchange markets, passport restictions, selective/
restrictive media attention, and market economics permiating the freedom of individuals and their
right to participate in the social and intellectual life of society, and have their voices heard.
The rapid emergence and use of Information Technology (IT), and computer networks poses important
questions for the nature and extent of inequality in society. Athough social commentators and
attitudes to emerging technology more generally may act to disguise this matter. Attitudes to
technology range from wholesale acceptance of the potential for a the generation of a utopian
society served by technology, for the benefit of all, to a 'Luddite' notion of the effects of
technology, which urges attention to social, ecological damage and centres on the effect on the
distribution of wealth and labour. The continuing presence of poverty, war and fammine in our world
implies to a proponent of the Luddite position that advances in high technology would be a
diversion from issues which are more demanding of the attention of human effort - prompting the
notion that we can walk on the moon but some citizens of communities fear their saftey walking our
planet's streets. Advances in some technology, especially communications technology, may act as a
tool for revitalisation and inclusion, an idea which is supported by the use of the internet by the
'New Luddites' to promote their anti technology message (Bernes, 1996). This highlights a dilemma
for those working iN communities on a rights agenda - what has the internet and computer
communications techmology got to do with the establishmant of basic rights to people such as food
and clean water freedom from harrassment and threats of physical violence?
Any work to support the development of rights and equality will be faced with urgent practical and
immediate need, such as the distribution of care in the form of assistance providing for, and
responding to, basic needs. This potentially placatory work while being vital, must be supported by
work which responds to wider political, social and economic factors which have acted to create
inequalities in the first place. Internet may seem fancy and unecarcary when faced with such
pressing need in the world, but levels of inequality are relative to the extreams of potential
which are available to community members. Challenging inequalities and ensuring rights requires
individuals to communicate their experiences with the same propensity as those who may act against
the interest of disadvantaged groups, and in the same fields of media and commuication. This work
must always form in two strands - fulfilling basic needs and ensuring survival, while acting on a
radical communicative agenda. The consiquences of ignoring telecomunications as an agenda item
and as a means for education and activism could be profound. Ian Angel, Professor of Information
Studies at the London School of Economics, in Warren, (1995), highlights the potential exclusive
effects of a widering 'information gap' between those who have access to new technology and those
who do not. Angel states, 'within 20 years the few who have work will congregate together in
'intellectual hot spots' separated from the rest of society and defended - literally - by high walls
with abandoned outlaw teratory beyond'. The walls may be virtual walls also, the digitising of
information and it's transmission over computer networks may act to further exclude, the socialy and
economically oppressed deneying acess to a new emerging focus of communication and information. So ]
often, through lack of information, money and time, those involved in the development of equal
rights and activism are left responding to the basic needs of individuals who are left damaged by
the effects of rapid social and political, and technological change.
The progression of IT is insistant and seemingly inevitable. Since the first digital information
processor, ENIAC, built at Pensylvania University in 1946 which weighed in at 30 tonnes, computers
have miniturised and increased many fold in processing power. Forester, (1985), compares the
development of the microprocessor with that of the aircraft and suggests if the Boeing 747 had
developed at the same pace as the computer, they would now cost 500 dollars and fly round the world
in 20 minuites on 5 gallons of peterol. The pace of development has been mathched only by the
multitude of uses for the microprocessor, from placement in light switches, to guideing space craft
and missiles, to forcasting weather and financial markets. The microprocessor has located itself at
the centre of the economic boom since the 2nd world war. The latest revolution, in the networking of
computers changes their use and moves them from stand alone work assistants to powerful personal
communications and informational storage devices significantly altering their functionality, role
and potential to evolk change.
The much predicted and debated concept of the information society, is central to the theme of this
work. The basic premise for the emergence of the information society is based in a western
conceptualisation of development - from industrialisation to tertiary service oriented economies.
Forester, (1985: xiii), states, 'Information Technology in it's strictest sense is the new science
of collecting, storing, processing, and transimitting information. Information is the lifeblood of
complex industrial societies and is growing in importance. A recent study by the British Prime
Minister's Information Technology Advisory Panel put the number of people employed in the "tradable"
information sector (publishing, consulting, online data services) at about 5 percent of the UK
workforce. But on a wider definition of the information sector, taking in the whole of Banking and
Insurance, central and local government, and education and training, it is clear the 40-45 percent
of the Uk workforce is directly involved in the processing of information. And since we all use
information at some time or other, their is no one who won't be touched by the information
technology revolution'. It seems the old addage that information is power is ever more true, and
in a more complex and competative society the addage may become updated to, speed and reliability
of access to information is directly proportional to propensity to power.
Information is emerging as a central issue of ever increasing importance to societal structures and
the distribution of rights and equality. The information revolution penetrates the economic,
political and social spheres of our lives, providing the split second information which enables the
sucessful trading of money on international trading markets, and increasingly becoming a focus of
political discourse. Netsoc, (1996), predict, 'that much political discourse will eventually shift
over to the infobahn. But by going there it, enters a place that not everone will be able to access
...we would have two information clases, information rich as well as infomation poor'. In this
society the polar issues and inequalities will continue with the addition of information inequality.
Pearson, (1995) offered a little of his notions of how the information society may develop in a
presentation to community workers at a national conference on inclusion in the Information society.
The work, for the future business stratagy department of British Telecom sets his vision of the
future of social technology until 2020. His work, considers the convergence of tele-communications,
computing, consumer electronics and the resulting impact on people and commerce. Predictions were
based on the rate at which computer networking, and computer processing power is developing -
currently suggesting that computers will surpass the 'processing power' of the brain by the year
2015. He claimed that technology has increased the productive working life of the previous social
generation - about 100,000 hours per individual; this may now be achieved in 10,000 hours, changing
to 1,000 by the next.
The convergence of these technologies has major implications for the fields of education, healthcare
and the working environment. A three stage model for the development of computer assisted education
was suggested from, the current, 'sage on the stage', to 'side by side' learning with computer as
assistant, to 'the guide inside' where computers and people integrate to the extent where machines
may facilitate learning interactively, where people have access to 'user led information gathering'.
This prediction is based on current developments in nano, and bio, technology in parallel with
computer networking and processing power, permitting direct links between machines and people,
creating those with the ability to instantly access vast data, and informational archives, and who
may be in almost constant touch with the global communications network. Ian concluded his presen-
tation suggesting the above developments may lead to create 'cyberpeople', a new species, by 2035.
Pearson felt this concept, and it's moral and ethical implications, should be left to be debated by
society, although, given the nature of technological development in a capital oriented economic
system, these decisions may be left in the hands of suppliers of these products and those who may
have the economic status to realise them. The concept of 'cyberpeople' may be potentially emotive
and a seemingly 'far fetched' application of social technology, although, if 10% of the predictions
generated in Pearson's work are in some way realised, the impact of such developments may be to
widen the wealth, and related information divide, between those with the social, cultural and
economic power to gain access to highly powerful performance enhancing technologies, and those
without. Ian's work suggsts that effective use of technology acts to increase human productivity,
therfore those with access to technology, and computer networking, have increased propensity to
effect social change or domination through economic, intellectual and communicative power.
Cottrill, (1995), considers the the demography of current IT distribution in the USA, 'More than
54,000 households were interviewed for the survey, which relates the likelyhood of owning a home
computer to a households racial, income and educational profile. The results show that the chances
of a household owning a computer increase with income and educational attainment. The study
concludes that in the US, access to the internet and related computer networks is heavily biased
towards upper income, educated households. For example white households with incomes above 75
thousand dollars are three times more likely to own a computer than households with incomes between
25 and 30 thousand dollars. In the UK, Dyer (1995), suggests that access to a telephone, an
increasing factor in the users propensity to be able to secure employment, and increasing channel
to information services, is limited to 80% of the population which leaves two million people un
phoned. He states, 'In Cruddas Park, a Newcastle Upon Tyne Council estate of some 3000 households,
it has been estimated that the connection rate is just 26 per cent... essentially those on lower
incomes are increasingly becoming the information poor.'
Mackay, (in Heap, 1995) shows a broad pattern of inequalities of access to home informatics
in his wideranging work covering the demography of ownership of home computers and other devises. He
reports that there are profound differences in ownership in terms of class, age, gender and
religion. He suggests that of households with under 60 pounds weekly income, 4.7 percent own a
computer compared to 13.6 percent with incomes between 160 and 240. Of households earning over 540
pounds weekly, 38 percent owned a computer. The main uses for ownership were, tp play games, for
children to learn computing, for business purposes, for adults to learn computing, and for managing
family finances. A gallup survey presented in Schofield, (1994), suggests that the UK is still not a
hi-tech society, 'of the thousand people questioned, only twenty one percent thought that computers
were easy to opperate ...and thirty percent siad they would never buy a computer ...only eighteen
percent questioned said computers were too expensive. However 48 percent cited price as the most
important factor when buying a PC.
Sources offering predictions of the numerical mass of internet community are few, and those
studied vary widely. The median estimations suggest that the Internet now connects between 20 and
30 million people, (Rhinegold, 1995) and is currently growing, world-wide, by 700,000 to 1 million
people per month. Harrison, (1995) offers an interpretation suggesting the Internet comprises some
5,000,000 World wide computers, increasing by 10% per month. In the UK 1,000,000 people have sampled
the Internet, 300,000 of which are regular users. British Telecom having recently become a new
internet service provider suggest that their market for UK subscribers may increase to 2,000,000 by
1998, (Schofield, 1996). Estimates of the precise demography of the internet population also vary
considerably. Anthony, (1994), suggests that the global village, a term used to represent the
unifying nature of computer communication networks, is in fact a global middle class suburb. He
cites the first ever poll of Internet use, based on some 4000 responses. The Internet has been
billed as the creator of an egalitarian, new cybersociety for all, regardless of race, colour or
class although this is cast into doubt by the survey which suggested the typical user of internet
facilities is male (94 percent), who has used computers for at least six years and is aged between
20 and 30 years old. Anthony states, 'far from breaching the gap between the haves and have nots,
the internet widens it. The groups that are at a disadvantage - women, the poor, the ill-educated,
black and ethnic minorities and the unemployed - are precisely the groups which use the system the
least'. The proposition is widely accepted, Thompson, (1995), states, 'research to date gives a
depressing picture of the average World Wide Web user. Forget the image of a multicultural gender
free Web populated with politically correct net surfers, and forget the web that crosses geographic,
cultural and social boundaries to bring us all together in the brave new world of cyberspace - at
least for now. The average Web user is a well educated able bodied white male, either still at
university or earning well above the average income'. While the nature of the internet clouds
precise definition of it's demographic makeup, the evidence suggests that access to performance
enhancing communications and informational technology is most likely owned and used as income,
education level, and class status increase, those with, already enhanced propensity to prosper, and
communicate are inproportionatly benefiting from the emergence of comoputer networks.
The technical and structural nature of the internet and computing, as an informational and
communictions medium acts to exclude those who do not have the means either physically, culturally
or psycologically. The digitisation of information is inherrantly exclusive, textual information
which previously would be stored in hard paper copy suddenly requires access to hundreds of pounds
of equiptment in addition to the requirement that the recipient of the information is able to read.
Furthermore the information held on computer networks requires aditional equiptment and access to be
acessable. The information age may pass those who do not have the cultural, personal or phisical
capital to gain access. The utopian ideas of a global communications village for all is challenged
by the current demography of the internet. The power of computer communications is already acting
to widen the information gap, which may well directly influence wealth, and propensity to power and
participation. The emerging importance of information, the growing disproportionate use of
the internet and computer performance enhancing technologies by exsisting powerful groups may turn
the idea of the utopia for all into an elitist securely walled garden.
Chapter Three
The Role of the Media and Communications
Parallels may be drawn between the Internet and other forms of global media, although, the Internet
differs from information sources, such as the Television, in that it offers users instantaneous two
way communication. The nature of conventional media such as newspapers, television, radio and to
some extent film, literature, and magasines, contains an implicit presenter, viewer dichotomy. The
passive viewer of mass distributed media has little input into what is presented, while the on/off
switch provides an unsatisfactory means for the viewer to gain editorial control. In the role of
media as entertainer, this provides little cause for concern, although in a world where the media
increasingly acts as mediator, news broker and educator the role has the potential to be highly
influential. The rate of consumption is rising.
Putnam, (1996: 13), suggests the media has an ever increasing effect on viewers values, attitudes
and belifes, linking the rise of Television's popularity to the breakdown of community, and civic
enguagement. Putnam states, 'In 1950, barely 10 percent of American homes had sets, but by 1959,
90 percent did - probably the fastest diffusion of a technological inovation ever recorded. In the
early years, viewing was concentrated amongst less educated sectors of the poulation, but during the
1970's the viewing time of the more educated sectors of the poulation began to converge upwards. By
1995, viewing per set-owning household was more than 50 percent higher than it had been in the
1950's. Most studies estimate that the average American now watches roughly four hours a day. Even
a conservative estimate of 3 hours means that it absorbs 40 percent of the average persons freetime,
an increase of about one third since 1965. This enormous change in the way Americans spend their
days and nights occurs precisely during the years of generational civic disenguagement... an
impressive body of literature suggests that heavy viewers are unusually sceptical about the
benevolence of other people - overestimating crime rates, for example. Heavy viewing may well
increase pessimism about about human nature. And it may increase passiveity.' The work of Putnam is
backed up in research by Williams and Dickinson, (1993), who investigated the role of the media in
the public perceptions of crime in the UK. The work provides an insight into the potential effects
of the media on public perceptions, 'those papers that report most crime in the most salient fashion
have readers who have the highest fear of crime levels.'
Carter, (1971), refers to four underpinning aims and purposes of the mass media which he has drawn
from different parts of the world. He proposes that mass media may be influenced by 'communist
ideology', where the principal of socialist nationalism must be consistently maintained in practice.
Nothing may be published that might stir up national discord and breed distrust among our nations
and nationalities. An 'authoritarian view' is reflected by ideologies which are embedded in the
politics of the right. Hitler (1939: p.48), noted that, 'The masses of people prefer the ruler to
be supplient and are filled with a stronger sense of mental security by a teaching that brooks no
rival, than by teaching which offers liberal choice'. A minister under Hitler, Albert Spear, (in
Bullock, 1952), suggested, 'Hitler's dictatorship differed in one fundamental point from all its
predisessors in history. His was the first dictatorship in the present period of modern technical
development, a dictatorship which made use of all technical means for the domination of it's own
country.... Through technical devises like the radio and the loudspeaker, eighty million people were
deprived of independent thought. It was thereby possible to subject them all to the will of one
man'. Carter, suggests that a 'capitalistic view', would state that the basic purpose of the press
and broadcasting systems, as with all industry, is the direct persuit of profit. Here the
opperations of the press should be considered in wholely in commercial terms, and is geared to the
persuit as high a return on investment as is possible. A fourth ideology is presented as one of
social responsibility, which is encapsulated in the development of the BBC in the early days of Lord
Reith. The 'social responsiblibility' approach stresses the mass media's responsibility to the
community, and the ideal of public service. Profit is a secondary consideration to these social
concerns. In terms of pervasive political pressure - in order to become more than mearly an
instrument of the state - all causions must be takenn to ensure an independence from it's authority.
The model of the developing BBC is perhaps the more uncommon of the four, although over time acts
of public deception have been maskeraded as 'in the national interest' or 'for the public good'.
The conclusion that media and mass communication comes with an inherant ideology is clear, and
this inevotably begs the question, 'who's interests do these ideologies represent? Robins and
Webster, (1989), are unoquivocal about the matter and suggest, 'Public opinion has become a
condition of organisational action, to be instrumentally managed. Propoganda, scientifically
managed by experts and professionals, becomes a legitimate - and indespensible - mechanism for
achiveing the efficient and rational regulation of society.' Antonio Gramsci, (in Popple, 1995),
enlightens a reader to, 'an expanded vision of politics, one that moves away from a concept of
politics as being about electoral politic, narrow party politics or the occupancy of state power.
Instead Gramsci percieves politics as a struggle for moral and intelectual leadership.'
Mouse, A, (1995) states, 'The best way of supplying information to the public is via the
communications media ...The media are virtually invulnerable, and so many organisations use it
for their own ends, for example, political groups, industries and individuals'. The work of Mouse,
considers the role of Media in setting ideological agendas, he relates the media to other forms
of capitalistic enterprise and states, 'As media are big businesses they have no reason to disagree
with the capitalist point of view, because it is them it is serving.' The economics of mass media
and broadcasting, influence the output of the media and adversly influence the diversity of media
coverage, consider how the media are similar to each other, and how newspapers tend to copy one
another. Rhinegold (1995: 148), comments on 'the way the number of owner of telecomunications
channels is narrowing to a tiny elite, while the reach and power of the media thay own expand,
[this] is a converging threat to citizens.'
Given a free press, concentration of ownership should not matter. However owners may set limits on
their journalists such as what they write and even who gets employed, which is tantamount to
censorship. In the case of the Express and Lord Matthews who stated '...editors have complete
freedom so long as they go by the guidelines I have set down' (quoted in, Mouse 1995). Overt and
covert pressure on the part of media moguls to editors may influence media output, but even where
editors say they are free to publish what they want, owners are more subtle in their control, by
choosing editors who share similar political beliefs. Journalists themselves may also practise self
censorship because they know what will and what will not be published. The comercialisation and
consentration of the press in the hands of a few world moguls may therfore act to inhibit
freedom of the press, investigative journalism - especially anti big business investigation and
add to low standards of the press, where anything goes, including slanted reporting and soundbite
sensationalism. On this point Rhinegold, (1995: 148), states, '...observers have documented and
analised the way the mass media (one to many media), have commoditised the public sphere,
substituting slick public relations for genuine debate packaging both issues and candidates like
other consumenr products'.
The scenario presented by Rhinegold clearly presents profound consiquences for the viewers of the
conventional mass media. The developing internet as a form of media, places editorial control, of
access and presentation of information into the hands of those using the system. The broadcasting
functionality of the internet offers potential revitalisation of diversity of mass available
information. Rhinegold, (1995) states, 'Which scenario seems more conducive to democracy, which to
totalitarian rule: a world in which a few people control communications technology that can be used
to manipulate the beliefs of billions, or a world in which every citizen can broadcast to every
citizen'. The rapidly growing internet community may communicate freely without the censorship
of intermediaries. Mouse, (1995), offers a sobering addition to the debate when he adds, 'The
popularity hasn't gone unnoticed by either the media or the powers that be. The media has apparently
gone off on a crusade to expose both the Internet and the people who use it as evil distributors of
pornography, corrupters of public morals, anarchists, closet terrorists or drug pushers ...Because
of this, politicians and governments here and abroad appear committed to introducing legislation
in order to gain some measure of control over the "uncontrollable beast".' Bond, (1996), throws
light on the developing conflict of interests when he suggests, 'Technology constantly changes the
organisation of society and so creates a crisis in ownership. For this reason ideology must
constantly develop (change it's meaning) while striving to appear the same (the form does not
change) ...Authority retells ideology in order to retain ownership ... Ideology leads to social and
psycological malfunctioning - to technological inefficiency, waste, hysteria and crime'. Rhinegold,
(1995), ardently defends the freedom of the use of the internet and considers that, 'The political
significance of computer mediated communcation lies in it's capacity to challenge the exsisting
political hierarchy's monolpoly on powerful communications media, and thus perhaps revitalise
citizen based democracy.' The issues of censorship and control will be discussed further in Chapter
Four.
The power of the media is evident when you look at the coups in the world; they always go for the
media broadcasting centres, consider Romainia in 1989 and the experience of the American war in
Vietnam where great civil unrest was experienced after the loss of control of the media coverage
of the war by the military. Television and other forms of conventional media may play a role in the
dissemination of information, but also in the overt and covert dissemination of ideology. While a
select few organisations are responsible for the dissemination of information, the cultural and
individual diversity of thought and feeling will always be under represented. The media may have
a critical role to play in society, but it can never be a subsitiute for some form of unmediated
communication between peoples. News may reflect national interests, where international issues go
unnoticed. Headline news, news presented as entertainment, and soundbite reporting offer a gloss of
information which is detrimental to co understanding of issues pertaining to people. The biggest
news story of any day for many workers in international relief work would create the headline, '1/4
of World's Popluation are Under-nourished!', this 'hidden' aspect of life - a real tradgedy, is the
priority of many people. This form of mass media, nationalises and normalises, as well as
sensationalising and de sensitising the consumer. The media may be seen as highly influential and
highly selective in it's presentation of prioritised news.
Chapter Four
Specific Factors of Access
Barriers to the medium may be considered in the light of personal, cultural and physical factors
inluencing the propensity for access. The cost of IT and internet access will be analised to show
general levels of cost, and how pricing structures may exclude low income earners. Further more
cost analisys will show how pricing structures are develping which offer levels of access amongst
those who access the internet. Access issues of a more political nature will then be discussed,
including issues of censorship and secrity in the emerging information age.
There are currently a number of methods of access to the Internet. Individuals may pay a
subscription to a 'commercial service provider', for this fee, which may be œ10.00 or $20.00 per
month up to $1000.00 per year, they get a phone number to dial from a computer, connecting them to
the main Internet infrastructure. Service providers often charge for additional services and offer
greater or lesser levels of access, at different costs. These commercial providers account for the
connection of the majority of private and business users within the UK, although their are other
methods of access. In the US Internet connected computer terminals are available in libraries, town
halls and in cafes. A number of cafes are in operation in the UK, mainly in major cities such as
London, Edinburgh, Bath, Liverpool, Manchester and Nottingham. Cafes offer a strange mix of
beverages and cafe culture mixed with Internet connected computers. They charge in the region of
œ2.50 to œ5.00 per hour for a computer to search the .net, or play, or talk and communicate with
other users in the world. Some of these cybercafes offer 'community policies' somtimes offering
space or advice to community agencies and disadvantaged groups. Community networks offer a fourth
method of access to the Internet; a group, organisation, or community may join together to buy a
central, 'Server' computer, and the infrastructure to provide themselves with access. An Internet
connected 'Server' computer may placed in a central location, and cables may be laid to venues
around the community. People may then access the Internet, for simply the cost of a local telephone
call, or if community owned cable has been laid, access is free. Those fortunate enough to qualify
for JANET access, (which could be described as a University community network, may dial-in to a
'Point of Presence', (in the case of JANET these are UK universities) from off campus, and
connections are minimised to the cost of a local telephone call. 'On campus' access may be free,
as cables from individuals computers to the main Internet connected 'Server' computer are privately
owned.
The cost of internet access, is highly variable depending on the access requirements of a potential
user. Simple email access may be obtained for the price of a telephone call to an internet
connected server computer offering free email feed to a user, such as the Spud Xanadu server in
London, or the Cosmic Gerbil in Blackpool (dial with your modem to 01253 859159 for access).
Free facilities may be unreliable or recinded at any given time, where paying for an email
service will offer more reliability and consistancy. Over 200 commercial service providers offer
email facilities in a range of different pricing structures and costs - for a full list of UK
internet service providers see Pope, 1995). An email account with a provider may cost from 10 pounds
a month plus, a one off connection fee of a simular ammount. Another ongoing cost of internet use is
incurred through telephone costs which may be kept to a minimum by reading and writing email offline.
In this way ten substantial mailings may be sent and 100 recieved, for the cost of one BT unit,
currently around five pence, (Holden, 1995). Computer Hardware is also a factor in the cost of
internet connection. Fast access means reduced telephone costs and the key factor in access speed
is the computers modem, which may range from under one hundred pounds to in excess of three hundred.
Modem speed required for acceptable all purpose internet access should equal 14,400 baud - costing
around one hundred and fifty pounds. A second factor of hardware specification relating to cost is
the processing power of the computer used to access the internet. A basic 286 processor machine may
be acceptable for email access, and a basic 286 processor machine may be connected to the WWW with a
software package - Minuet, which is freely available on the interne, (For information about Minuet
see, http://www.MR.Net/~cdh/minuet-faq). To access the full multimedia functionality of the
WWW a newer 486 or 586 processor machine, with multimedia facilities should be used. A basic 286
processor machine with modem will cost over five hundred pounds, and a newer machine with modem may
cost upwards of one thousand pounds at 1996 market prices.
Presenting information on the World Wide Web means accessing space on an internet connected server
computer. The majority of major service providers offer Web space for at various costs. Five
megabytes of web space (enough for 50 plus pages of information) may be bought for twenty five
pounds a month. The design and writing of the content of web pages is a growing industry small
firms are setting up in production, charging up to 25 pounds an hour. Major sites can cost many
thosands of pounds. This cost is prohibitive to voluntary groups, but the skills involved in the
creation of even complex page design are available on the internet free to users, (for futher
information see the Netscape homepage - http://www.netscape.com/). I simple page may be written with
the assistance of a software program called HTML Assistant in a matter of minuites, by a relatively
inexperienced writer. The costs of a server machine begin from two thousand pounds, and connection
to the world wide network means, connecting the server to an exsisting internet network. The cost
of buying in fiber optic cable is prohibitive, although economies of scale operate in the long
term. Optic cables may be rented for upwards of six thousand pounds a year meaning a whole local
network of computers (for example at a school) may be connected reducing the cost of each computer
connection considerably. Creating infrastructure is expensive, fiber optic cabling cost upward of
one million pounds per 100km to lay. The development of infrastructure is restricted by the
strictures of high finance. (Focas, 1996)
Functionality is a function of cost, and ability to pay brings faster access which may go some way
to reduce costs of use in teh long run. The costs of internet use, especially WWW use are small in
comparison to the functionality which they offer - the costs of other forms of global media
distribution would far outweigh them. In this sense the internet has brought the possibility for
global publishing and informqation distribution to more people than ever before. The accessability
of the Internet to individuals is still restricted by price constraints although the price of
equiptment and therfore access is falling rapidly. More money means faster and fuller access to
new electronic media. Comercial service providers, such as Pipex UK, are already creating network
architectures, which unlike the current internet, are designed to allow the structuring of levels
of access, to allow different levels of functionality at different costs (Pope, 1996). This
stratification of use can only add to the inequality the internet may create, the motive for such
an action is purely economic.
Clark, (1995), manages an organisation called CommUnity who aim to defend the Internet from
inappropriate media coverage and legislation. Clark suggests, the Internet - developed by the
American Military in the 1960's was designed maintain operation through a neuclear attack. This
design acts to prevent censorship. People and information may be banned from a particular server
machine but the structure allows them to gain access via an international phone call. Service
providers (such as Demon in the UK) will give access to anyone as long as they can pat the 10
pounds a month service charge. This would have struck horror into the heart of Sir William Berkley,
Govenor of Virginia, in 1677, (quoted in Postman, 1969) he stated, 'Thank god their are no free
schools or printing ...for learning has brought disobedience and heracy into the world, and printing
has divulged them ...God keep us from both'. Recent US government action has tryed to make service
providers responsible for the communication of their customers, and this has proved unpopular and
impractical as some system operators would have to check 500 megabytes of information a day passing
through there system. Many users feel that it is wrong to reduce the content and information flow
over the Internet to that which is preferable for a ten year old. Difficulties of censorship lye
in the fact that the Internet is a user moderated medium, but here also lies its facination and
novelty.
Digital information may be encripted, making it undecipherable to all other than those who know the
unique encription code. The US government have attempted to set the standard for encription
software, creating a 'master' key allowing them to access all encripted data. This has proved
unsucessful as they were unable to prevent exsisting software from being shared on the Internet,
also the standard would have had to be agreed internationally which proved impossible. Anonimity
is a further contensious issue for those attempting to police the Internet and those who wish to
preserve it's current uncensored status. A method allows users to post email to a specific address
where information relating to them is stripped from the mailing, a reply to that mailing would be
directed back to them via the anonymous service provider. Groups such as The Samaritans have argued
strongly in favour of retaining the anonymous email system as it allows them to offer services where
confidentiality is assured and is led by the user. Censorship of the Internet becomes practically
impossible given the aformentioned technical structure and developing cultural standards. Attempts
to create a censored environment may only act to curtail the activities of those who use computer
networks for illegal practices marginally, whilst effecting the spirit and the use of the networks
for the millions who use it within the legal framework. While censorship may be difficult the
potential for monitoring and survellance of private activities, is as great as the technical
expertese which gives the internet its present and possible future levels of functionality.
Rowe, (1990: 170), clarifies the issues further and potentially informs the development of future
policy when he states, 'There seems no doubt that in the future we will experience more information -
the issue is weather it can be both open and protected. In the 'good society', public life should be
open and private life should be private, but the fear with new technology is that we could end up with
greater public secrecy, and less personal privacy'.
Chapter Five
The Developing Role of The Community Services
Amongst all the recent publicity and 'hype', issues of potential importance to the community and
youth services regarding the Internet, and computer networking more generally, may be lost. Harris,
(1995), states 'The Community services could take a lead role in offering access to communities and
disadvantaged groups.' The use of the medium both on the part of the Sevices and for the Services
client groups, could be a central facet in the fight against inequality in the coming years. As the
communicative function of society increasingly moves to digital form. Those most disadvantaged will
be those who are voiceless and barred from the medium by high walls which are built from factors,
of culture, race, class, social, ecomomic, and political power.
Watson, (1995), suggests, the sheer volume of current internet related material in the press, the
distorted nature of the debate, and the predominantly oral culture in the community and youth
services, may deter workers and agencies from accustomising themselves, using and offering their
unique role in ther development of this versatile communications medium. The community services
may benefit from investigating the new communications medium, for communication amongst service
agencies, and in respect of the potential for the internet and digital computer communications to
create further inequality amongst the most disadvantaged - the services proposed client group.
Harris, (1995ii) calls for the involvement of the community services in the internet which is
already called for by the current mass of internet community. He reports that some 150 informal
support groups are opperating on the internet. The groups are, self help groups, voluntary in
nature, and led by their users. He suggests that some groups have up to 200 active members, and
'silent' readerships of up to 20 thousand people, in the case of one such group set up and run by
depressed individuals. The exsisting co-operative nature of internet communication is challenged
by the occasional 'predatory' interaction (known as flaming in internet culture). The Flaming
occurs both in and outwith the support groups mentioned. Whilst not wishing to detract from the
good support and beneficial interaction continuing on computer networks, Harris suggests, because
of the predatory, often racist, sexist or homophobic interaction, there is room for a professional
input in many forms of computer mediated communication. The media attention to given to the
internet's porn, drug information and other such socially unacceptable information, may offer
another call for the serices involvement in the internet.
Access is of particular relevance to the community services. A distinction may be drawn between
'access' could be considered to encompass the wider social, political and economic barriers to the
technology, and 'accessibility' is descriptive of the of the individual, personal/psychological
experience of the technology and it's usability. Accessibility is of both great commercial and
social interest. Small changes in the way that the technology is presented and spoken about by users
could enhance accessibility. Tackling the politics and economics of 'access' involves a
participative exploration of the issues - looking for some common areas of interest between
extremes. The Services may play future a role in the dissemination of information about the emerging
issues of inequality presented by Information Technology and computer communications. This work, and
may involve offering acess and even training - work which is already undertaken by current
initiatives.
Work addressing the wider educational possibilities, and implications of IT in the context of rapid
technological development, may also be increasingly important. IT activly enguages people and has
been shown to enhance learning. On a more expansive note, Rogers, (1954: 138), offers a theory
of creativity which poses some general concerns about education for technological development. He
states, 'In a time when knowledge, constructive and destructive, is advancing by the most incredible
leaps and bounds into a fantastic atomic age, genuinly creative adaption seems to represent the only
possiblility that man can keep abreast of the kalidescopic change in the world. With
scientific discovery and invention proceeding, we are told at a goemetric rate of progression, a
generally passive and culture bound people cannot cope with the multiplying issues and problems.
Unless individuals, groups and nations can imagine, construct and creativley revise new ways
of relating to these complex issues, the lights will go out. Unless man can make new and original
adaptations to his environment as rapidly as science can change the environment, our culture will
perish. Not only individual maladjustment and group tensions but international annihilisation will
be the price we pay for lack of creativity.'
The implications of the ever increasing importance of mass media in information distribution and
it's ideological connortations, may also be drawn from the researh with implication for community
service attention. The power of the mass media is an ever more competitive market, young people
and communites are increasingly bombarded with information which lacks diversity of thought,
promotes competition, with underlying ideological assumptions. Information of this type, such as
advertising, club leaflets, glossy magasines and tv, are highly complex and advanced in
terms of maketting theory. It is this world that eductional services now compete for the attention
of the public. The quality of care and face to face work of the work of Services and
voluntary groups should be matched by a an attention to mass information distribution. It
seems the Services are loosing the ideological battle in this respect. Educational work espcially
that which is informal and has no captive audience may need to follow this two pronged approach in
an ever increasingly information filled world.
The role of the Services in addressing potential information inequalities, will much depend on
funding, training, time contraints and will. Gore, (1991), suggests that the high capacity
information infrastructure in the USA will not be built without Government investment, and the same
might be said of the UK. Dyer, (1995), states, 'The question now is weather it is possible to
reconcile the pressures of a liberalised [telecommunications] market with concerns for a more
"socially just" distribution of these communications and information resources'. A central role of
the Services may lie in the development of policy and influencing UK government policy in the
emerging information economy. Legislation and the rudiments of future policy are in development
currently and therfore advantage could be gained in this developmental period, time is short.
Crookshank, (1996), suggests that capital infrastuucture policy for communications policy requires
centralised colaborative policymaking on behalf of Government and Business sectors (and community
services). If we relate the current communications policy to transport policy, we would see a, i'll
build my motorway if you build yours, scenario. He added that the UK needs co-ordinated policy and
stratagy not left to market forces. At the World Conference of Sovial Development, in Copenhagen,
Martti Ahtisaari (1995), President of Finland stated, '...it is important for those of us who are
gathered at the Social Summit, those of us with the ability to form public policy, to keep in mind
the inequalities that this very same communications technology can generate. Who has access to the
Internet? How can we make access to these technologies more widespread?'.
A number of access inititives are springing up in the UK, while pro active internet social and
community related work with the internet community, is left to the users of the medium
Mill, (1994) discusses the emergence of one such access initiative the SBLN. On reciept of a
750,000 pound grant from the TEC challenge scheme in 1992, the South Bristol Learning Network
[SBLN] surveyed 50 local community groups trying to ascertain how the community may make use new
electonic media in the revitalisation of the Hartcliffe community, they found the level of
undestanding about the technology and it's practical application to be to limited for survey
participants to make judgements about it's usefulness, (SBLN, 1994). The SBLN survey resulted in
the community work agency setting up awareness raising workshops. The users of the services of SBLN
are seen as key influences in local groups from, voluntary agencies, schools, church groups, local
businesses, colleges and libraries. John O'Hara the project director hopes people will be inspired
by the workshops and go back to their communities with ideas about how to use the technology. These
may range from an Aids awareness group using the internet to exchange information and support with
other groups across the world, to public access terminals where people could go to find out
information on what the local council is doing. SBLN have offered workshops to two thousand people
in the South Bristol area. (SBLN email: sbln@sbln.demon.co.uk)
The SBLN are relatively advanced in the provision of internet community services and are currently
advising the US and Canadian governments on the experience in Hartcliffe. Another group proposing
access initiatives are the Partnerships group of Community Networkers.
Partnerships aim to develop as a practical action oriented group, although it would not set up as a
further new organisation. The group act as a network of networks, aiming to link up with other
groups, creating a collaborative resource pool. Partnebrships aim to act as a channel for the
navigation of information between autonomous member networking projects. The project leader David
Wilcox, Brighton. (email: dwilcox@pavilion.co.uk). Participants in the Partnerships forum include,
the Community Development Foundation, Bassac, Rural Community Network, Manchester Host, National
Council of Voluntary Services and further groups from the community, statutory, education and
voluntary sectors. The work of Partbnerships is based in the idea that technology shouldn't lead the
development of communication via electronic networks, this should be led by the needs of communities
and the Services.
Wilcox, (1995), suggests strong themes for the development of the work of Partnerships:
- The future information society may effect communities adversely.
- We may make people aware of what is coming, raising the debate on who benefits, pays, controls.
- We need to debate and seek to influence who has access, with what terms.
- Networking, more information is needed about initiatives nationally and internationally.
The Internet offers a potentially empowering communications and information tool to communities and
the community development services. Involvement in these technologies may be initiated by these
services, although, now is not the time to sell solutions to local communities, it is a time to
explore, in partnership, how technology, information, and the real world interact. This needs to be
done at two levels, both nationally and locally. Partnerships vision is to create places where
people can experiment and learn safely what this new medium can do.
Other key initiatives include an independant project, where public libraries have just placed a
funding bid with the National Lotteries Board, for 42 million pounds, which would pay for public
acess terminals at public libraries. The initiative will offer the first wide spread free public
access available in the UK, although in the USA the internet is already available in other public
places such as kiosks an, community centres. (BBC World Service, 1996). The 1996 Labour
Party manefesto for education contains details of a deal teh party would strike with British
Telecom, offering them a licence for the distribution of entertainment over their exsisting
telecomunications network, for linking up public agencies such as hospitals, community centres and
schools. The details of the scheme are perhaps not fully considered. Questions are raised about
short term and long term, training and staffing implications of such a wide spread move. Online a
number of initiatives, for communications and information storage and retrival exsist,
'community-youth-work' is a discussion forum, offering members a place for the sharing of
information and resources relevant to the study and practice of community and youth work. You
can email the disscussion forum at the email address: community-youth-work@mailbase.ac.uk
A second project exsists creating a database of information relevant to the work of the Community
Services. The BUBL (British Builiten Board for Libraries) Project is available at the internet
address: http://www.bubl.bath.ac.uk/BUBL/CYS.html. The Voices of Youth, project initiated by the
United Nations (http://www.iisd.ca/un/linkages/youth.html), provided young people online with
the oppertunity to send messages to world leaders at the World Summit for Social Development
in Copenhagen, (1995). The project attracted responces from young people from 81 countries, a total
of 3,188 messages were sent. Distribution of participants was mainly centred around the
industrialised nations. At the conference 23 government leaders viewed some messages, which
reflected a wide range of issues of concern such as poverty, joblessness, social conflict as well
as the environment. One message read, 'Put aside your political differences and ambitions and put
an end to poverty and injustice once and for all!! Their is no excuse for the world being in the
condition it's now in - together we can improve it! Nurture all children, protect the environment,
stop discriminating against women, listen to young people, let us participate for we are the
future'.
Summary and Conclusion
The exsisting culture of the internet is bourne out of a sharing, co operative, user led community
development. The internet reflects aspects of a functioning, communicative community. A community
which until has exsisted for the mutual benefit of its users, where information sharing and
cooperative development have created the highly developed functional system that is in exsistance
today. The global network now encompases millions of computers, and tens of thousands of
interconnected network infrastructures. The community is now reached a estimated mass of
30 million people growing at an exponential rate. Some estimations suggest that the UK internet
community could double in number to 2 millions within the following two years.
The rapid growth is a testamony to the powerful communications and informational storage/retreval
functionality which it offers its users. The internet enables a user to communicate instantaniously
across the world, by functions equating to postal mail, newsletters, magasines, mailing lists, news
builitens, one to one live textual communiction, live textual conferencing, telephone and video
conferencing. Information may be presented in graphic form, and vast data archives may be searched
in a few tens of seconds. The internet may be equated with other forms of global media and may be
be used as a broadcasting medium. The interactive, two way functionality of the internet has special
significance for the enhancement of intapersonal and intaorganisational communication. The internet
offers a rich communications device where multiple use of its functions creates the potential for
new levels of communication. The system reduces the costs of broadcasting to the extent that it
may be seen as relativley cheep, bringing this to a new strata of people.
Attitudes to the emerging technology range from wholesale aceptance, to wholesale rejection.
Negative attitudes may lump communications technology with other forms, which may hide an important
distinction between solely socially or environmentally destructive technology, and that which is
potentially a tool for revitalistation. Those involved in the struggle for equality or for the more
wide spread advancements of rights, may benefit greatly with the networking power of computer
communications, although this may raise a question of the validity of computer use, and especially
hooking up to the internet, in a divided society where even elimentary needs are not met. The
progression of tele communications and computer communications is almost certainly inevitable. The
pervasive power of technology, and communications technology, increases the productivity of users.
Activists promoting the idea of equality may, through lack of funding and information, are placed
in potentially ameliorative roles. The struggle for equality must take place on four fronts, and
encompass the attention to basic needs, and also the wider political, educational and informational
role, whilst responding to both current, and future potential threats/allies. The insistance of
technological development urges the reminder that inequality is not a static struggle, it is one
which is relative to the extreams of current and future possible human productivity and propensity
for further power and exclusion. This productivity may be used for the advancement of competition,
greed, malice, or for the advancement of equality.
Information is of ever increasing importance in social power interrelations, therfore access to
performance enhancing information technology is a key factor in the distribution of equality.
Increased access to information, and information distribution increases the propensity for power
and the ability to effect change. Research has shown access to information technology and the
networks which may be a major communications channel the emerging information society, is
inproportionatly biased toward white, male members of society. Increased levels of use increse
with exsisting social status, class and economic wealth. Evidence clearly shows the developing
information society, predicted by some as a revolutionary utopia, is already a middle class suburb.
The internet equates with the fuctions of the conventional mass broadcasting media, although the
internet differs in that it provides fast efficient two way communication. Conventional
mass media has an implicit passive, active dichotomy, where participants are either presenters of
information or viewers. In the realm of media as entertainmer this is of little concern, but in the
context of the mass media's increasing influence and pervasivness, as mediator, educator, and
ideological social force it has profound consiquences for social relations. Television has been
shown to be rising in use, and has been connected with growing passivity, social distrust and
civic disenguagement. The same has been shown of other forms of mass media. One way media has a
significant critical role in society, but its role as sole intermediary between the mass of people
is threatening to those who it does nor represent. The media cannot be a subsitiute for
unmediated person to person communication. Forms of conventional media are selective,
sensationalist, and desensitising. An ideological undercurrent is present, which is enevtable
while the media community is unrepresentative of society. If ideology is enevitable in media then
a significant question relates to, who's ideology it represents and who's interests are served?.
The media is the best means of information distribution and where politics is seen as the
struggle for moral and interlectual leadership, the media is the most effective means for social
control. The conventional media is profit orientated, and therfore has little reason to
challenge the basic underlying principles of capitalism. The narrowing ownership of the
conventional media, to a little more than few global conglomerates threatens diversity and
ultimately freedom. Pressure for the media to normalise, and conform to owners particular
values, attitudes and belifes acts in coercive and overt forms and intensifies with monopolistic
development. The internet differs from conventional media and places a form of editorial control
in the hands of the user of the system, in the information that is presented and viewed. In this
sense the internet empowers the user, offering choice, and increasing diversity and the propensity
for critical and investigative information handleing. The internet provides the capacity for citizen
to citizen broadcasting which may be more conducive to a participatory democracy. The internet
further challenges hierarchy and empowers those who can afford access. The nature and popularity
of the internet has not gone unnoticed by the government, and the traditional media has seemingly
gone on a crusade to expose the 'uncontrolable beast' which acts to misconstue the internet and
it's community.
A key factor of access to communications technology is the economics of access. Internet has
brought a massive reduction in the costs of global communications and information distribution.
Price still remains a major barrier to those who form the economic underclass. Profit driven
access proveders will place considerations of profit before equality issues. Active moves from the
service providers to structure networks, stratifying levels of access to the facilities can only
add to the inequalities of those who may gain access. Attempts to control and censor the internet
may prove difficult, given the established anti censorship culture and global nature of the
internet. While censorship is currently in hot debate, issues of privacy and information security
are worhty of attention. The high functionality of comuter networks for communiation are matched by
the possibilities for monitoring and the right to privacy.
Implications for the community services lie in the potential for technology and computer
communication networks to further erode people's life chances while enhancing the performance
and power, of those who have the means to achieve access. Issues of importance to Community
Services may be lost in the hype and attention given to the internet, and may act to exclude the
unique role of the Services in the development of communications. The internet calls for the
participation of the Community Services both using it's high functionality for the devloment of
intaservice and agency communication, and in a proactive professional role in the communicative life
of the internet community. A further key role may be in the provision of information relating to
issues of inequality in technology and communications. Client's may grow to expect a level of
access from agencies, and a to some extent a training role may be fulfilled. An important function
of the commuity sector may be in the generation of policy and stratagy at a local and governmental
level. Restraints to service involvement may include the level of knowledge already in service,
costs, time constraints, readiness of available material, training issues and will. Initiatives
already exsist offering access locally, and networking nationwide. If Services take the role it is
apparent we must push access initiatives very hard to balence the inequalities offered by
restraints of market forces.
Clark, (1995), states, 'If the Information Superhighway is going to touch most people's lives
in any meaningful way, beyond cable television an dial-a-pizza, routes to the .net have to be made
in principle for everyone. Current incentives making access available through public libraries must
be applauded, but such projects and similar intensions will fail without adiquate educational
backup. Backup which teaches people not only how to access the .net on a technical level, but
also that the .net is about People and Ideas. We have to encourage a vision of the .net that
trancends the hardware and the gold-rush: a vision that is about meaning and possibilities. In
other words we have to preserve the Heart of the Net.' Internet sits at the crux of future rights
and equality issues - censorship, government/public relations, global intercommunication,
access to information, issues of freedom of speach and expression. The contradiction of the
revolutionary internet lies in it's rapid development, which may create an inpenitrable wall
excluding already disadvantaged communites, and its further potential to act as a efficient and
focal communication medium for liberatory intervention in those same groups.
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Appendices
I - Organisations relating to community and internet development
Allianssi, Finnish Youth Co-operation Alliance
Contact: Henrik Ahlgren (system manager), Allianssi, Olympia-stadion,
Etelakaarre, FI-00250, Helsinki, Finland. ph +358-0-3482422, telefax
+358-0-491290, email: info@alli.fi (Henrik, pablo@alli.fi)
http://www.alli.fi/ | telnet://gateway.alli.fi/
ANJY, A Network For Jewish Youth
Contact: Mathew Album, project co-ordinator, Martin Shaw, executive
director, (martins@ibmpcug.co.uk) ph 0181 908 4747 email: anjy@ort.org
http://www.ort.org/anjy/anjy.html
BASSAC, British Association of Settlements and Social Action Centres
Contact: James Kimmis, membership services assistant, 13 Stockwell Road,
London, SW9 9AU, ph 0171 733 7428, No email
British Computer Society
Contact: British computer Society, ph 01793 417417, fax 01793 480270,
BUBL, British Buliten Board for Libraries Subject Tree, Youth and Community
Section
Contact: John Williamson, Community and Youth Studies Department, University
College of St. Martin, Lancaster, LA1 3JD, ph 01524 63446,
email: xtg035@cent1.lancs.ac.uk
http://www.bubl.bath.ac.uk/BUBL/CYS.html
Cardiffnet - http://info.cf.ac.uk/ccin/homepage.html
CCN, Center for Civic Networking, USA
Contact: CCN, #78 Reservior Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, ph (800) 999-6709,
email: ccn@civicnet.org | (Miles Fidelman, 617-617-241-5064, Richard Civille,
202-362-3831, email: rciville@civicnet.org)
CDF, Community development Foundation
Contact: Kevin Harris (secratary- insinc), Community Development Foundation,
60 Highbury Road, London, N5 2AG, ph 0171 226 5375, fax 0171 704 0313,
email cdf@geo2.poptel.org.uk email: insinc@cityscape.co.uk
WWW: http://www.cityscape.co.uk/insinc/
Chatback Trust
Contacts: The Chatback Trust, ph 01926 888333,
email: t.holloway@warwick.ac.uk
CommUnity, Computer Communuicators Association
Contacts: CommUnity, 7 Primrose Road, Halton, Leeds, LS15 7RS,
ph 0161 761 3540, email: Oliver Clark oliver@pigpen.demon.co.uk
Community Computing Network - email: ccn@mcr1.poptel.org.uk (Manchester)
Coventry Community Network - http://www.hiway.co.uk/~ecosaur/coventry/
Europsych,
Contact: Ian Pitchford, Dept. of Biomedical Science, Sheffield University,
Western Bank, Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK, email: i.pitchford@sheffield.ac.uk
Fundraising, UK - charities and fundraising resource links for community and
voluntary organisations, on the World Wide Web.
Contact: http://web.city.ac.uk/~bh543/fundraising.html
IBM UK - 'community connections awards'
Contact: (Claire Bryant), IBM, Community Connections Awards, First Floor,
Tuscany House, White Hart Lane, Basing Stoke, Hampshire, RG21 2AF, ph
0171 202 3000, fax 0171 928 4464
Infobase (youth information service for young people)
Contact: John Clayton (principal youth officer), Nottingham County Council,
eisure services (youth and community) Division, Trent Bridge House, Fox Road,
Nottingham, NG2 6BJ. ph, 0115 977 4219, fax 0115 981 6898, No email
Inter-Action - is a charity offering community groups and agencies access to IT
equiptment at a minimal cost
Contact: Inter-Action, HMS President (1918), Victoria Embankment, London,
EC4Y OHJ, ph 0171 583 2652
NCET, National Council for Educational Technology
Contact: Jenny Brown, NCET, Milburn Hill Road, Science Park, Coventry, CV4 7JJ
ph 01203 416994, fax 01203 411418, No email
Newcastle Youth Information Exchange
Contact: Kevin Milligan, Homeless North, 40 Dean Street, Newcastle-U-Tyne, NE1
1PG, ph 0191 232 7092, fax 0191 221 0288, No email. (Leon Mexter 0191 232 4333)
Net Services - aim to enhance communication amongst community and business
sector organisations
Contact: Steve Harris, Net Services, 54 Selkirk Street, Cheltenham,
Gloustershire, GL52 2HH, ph/fax 01 242 580293,
email: steveha@cix.compulink.co.uk
NISW, National Institute for Social Work
Contact: Mark Watson, NISW, 5 Tavistock Place, London, WC1H 9SN, ph 0171 387
9681, fax 0171 387 7968,
email: mwatson@nisw.org.uk, NISWnet: 8,np,1,ansi 0171-338 6982
http://emporium.turnpike.com/S/socnet/nisw.html
http://www.nisw.org.uk/
NYA, National Youth Agency
Contact: Jon Boagey, NYA, 17-23 Albion Street, Leicester, LE1 6GD,
ph 0116 285 6789, fax 0116 247 1043, No email.
http://www.nya.org.uk/
Manchester (Virtual) - http://www.u-net.com/manchester/
Partnership LTD
Contact: David Wilcox, Partnership LTD, Pelham Square, Brighton, BN1 4ET. ph
0273 677377, fax 0273 677379,
email: dwilcox@pavilion.co.uk
http://www.phreak.co.uk/
PHREAK - community and activists Buliten Board System,
Contact: Jonathan Baker Bates, ph 0171 434 3315, PHREAK 0171 434 3800
http://www.phreak.co.uk/ (IP: 194.129.172.23 [port:3000], first class)
PIAFE, (Pays de Gaule, Irelande, Angleterre, France, Ecosse)
Contact: for contact address, Jon Boagey, NYA, Leicester, (see above).
SBLN, South Bristol Learning Network
Contact: John O'Hara (Dir), Colin (Manager), Lee Fenton (WWWest
co-ordinator), SBLN, South bristol College, Bishopport Avenue, Hartcliffe,
Bristol, BS13 ORJ, ph 0117 987 1187, fax 0117 964 1021,
email: sbln@sbln.demon.co.uk (j.ohara, l.fenton, cyberski)
SCCD, Standing Conference on Community Development
Contact: Graham Partridge, SCCD, 356 Glossop Road, Sheffield, S10 2HW, ph
0742 701718, fax 0742 762377, NO email.
SCUTREA97 - Standing Conference on Adult Education
Contact: Paul Armstrong (conference secratary) centre for Extra Mural Studies, Birbeck college,
University of London, 26 Russell Square, London, WC1B 5DQ, ph 0171 631 6625, fax 0171 631 6688,
email: p.armstrong@ext-mural.bbk.ac.uk (internat.conf)
SHARE, Cornwall Youth Services
Contact: Claire Woodbine, Bodmin Youth Office, Bodmin, Cornwall, ph 01208
79252, fax 01208 77769, http://tin.ssc.plym.ac.uk/share.html
SOCNET On-Line
Contact: Martin Brassington, Matt Fawsett, Keith Flecher. SOCnet,
http://emporium.turnpike.co.uk/S/socnet.html
UNICEF, United Nations Children's Fund - The Voices of Youth Project
Contact: Richard Jolly, Deputy Executive Director, UNICEF.
http://www.iisd.ca/un/linkages/youth.html
Volnet - Community and Voluntary Sector Database
Contact: Volunteer Centre, 29 Lower King's Road, Berkhampstead, Hertfordshire,
HP4 2AB, ph 0442 873311, fax 0442 870852,
email: CDF, as above, email: volnet@ucl.ac.uk
http://
telnet://volnet@grid.unl.ac.uk:23/
Woodcraft Folk
Contact: Tony Billinghurst, Woodcraft Folk, 13 Ritherdon Road, London, SW17
8QE, ph 0181 672 6031, fax 0181 767 2457, No email. Andrew Bibby, Woodcraft Folk
WWW pages, 01442 845799, http://www.poptel.org.uk/woodcraft/
